Clauses of contrast, purpose, reason and result

Clauses of contrast

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Although, even though

We can use although/even though at the beginning or middle of a sentence followed by a clause (subject + verb). We NEVER use a comma after although or even though.

• Although/Even though we had a bad game, we won. 
• We won, although/even though we had a bad game.

However

We use however to connect two different sentences. We normally use however at the beginning of the second sentence after a full stop (.) or a semi-colon (;). However is ALWAYS followed by a comma.

• We didn’t like the hotel. However, we had a fantastic time. 
• We went to the beach; however, the weather wasn’t perfect. 

We can also use however at the end of the sentence.

• We didn’t like the hotel. We had a fantastic time, however. 

Yet

The word yet means ‘but’ or ‘however’, and we use it to introduce a contrast to something that has just been mentioned. It is followed by a subject and verb, and it often appears after a comma or the word and. It can also be used after a full stop, followed by a comma, but that’s much less common.

• She was tired, yet she continued to work.
• The task was difficult and yet they managed to complete it.
• She was tired. Yet, she continued to work. (Not common.)

Despite/in spite of

Despite and in spite of are usually followed by a noun or a –ing verb. They can go at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence.

• Despite/In spite of the rain, we went to the concert.
• They arrived despite/in spite of leaving very early. 

We can use a clause (subject + verb) after despite/in spite of + the fact that.

• We went out despite/in spite of the fact that it was raining. 

While/whereas

We use while and whereas to show contrast between two facts or ideas. They can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence, after a comma, and are often interchangeable.

• While/Whereas she enjoys cooking, he prefers to eat out.
• Mary likes classical music, while/whereas her sister prefers jazz.

Clauses of purpose

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To + infinitive

The most common way to express purpose in English is to + infinitive.

• The student worked hard to pass the test. 

In order to/so as to + infinitive

In order to or so as to + infinitive are more common in formal English, mainly in writing. The negative forms are in order not to and so as not to + infinitive.

• We were asked to stay in order to finish the project. 
• He left home early in order not to be late.
• Use a plastic hammer so as to avoid damage. 
• They walked quietly so as not to wake up the children. 

We can also use the structure in order for someone/something to do something.

• We need to mobilize the media in order for the Government to listen to us.
• Three different surgeries were necessary in order for him to survive.

So that + clause

We can also use so that + subject + verb to express purpose. We normally use a modal verb with this connector, e.g. could, can, would, etc.

• We left early so that we could park near the centre. 
• He made some flashcards so that it would be easier for his mum to remember the instructions. 

For + noun

We can also use for + noun to express purpose.

• We went to the bar for a drink.
• Would you like to go to the park for a run?

We can use for + –ing verb (instead of to + infinitive) to talk about the purpose of an object or action when we use the verb used or when we imply it.

• This knife is (used) for cutting plastic.
• Schools are for educating, not for entertaining.

In case + clause

To express purpose, we can also use in case + subject + verb. We use this form to talk about precautions,  when we do something because something we don’t want might happen.

• Take an umbrella in case it rains. (=Take an umbrella so that you won’t get wet if it rains)
• I won’t tell Ann in case she tells everyone else. 

Clauses of reason

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When we want to explain why something happened or why someone did something, we use a clause of reason introduced by a conjunction (as, since, because) or a noun phrase introduced by because of, due to, owing to, or on account of.

Because

We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the beginning or the end of a sentence (at the end is more common). A comma is used when the clause of reason is at the beginning of the sentence.

• We didn’t go because it was raining heavily. 
• Because the event was cancelled, they lost their deposits. 

As/since

We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by subject + verb and can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. However, as and since are more formal expressions and are more common in written than spoken English.

• The Government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain is forecast for the entire weekend.
• As/Since the roads were blocked, the victims had to be rescued by helicopter. 

Because of

We use because of before a noun.

• The concert was postponed because of the heavy rain. 

Due to/owing to/on account of

We can also use due to/owing to/on account of before a noun. They mean ‘because of’ but are more formal.

• The event was cancelled due to/owing to/on account of lack of interest. 
• I couldn’t enjoy the meal due to/owing to/on account of their constant arguing. 

Clauses of result

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We use clauses of result to talk about the result of an action or situation.

So

We can use so + subject + verb at the end of a sentence to mean ‘this is why’.

• We didn’t have anything to do, so we decided to rent a film. 
• I worked very hard today, so I’m exhausted. 

For this reason

We usually use for this reason at the beginning of a sentence. We use a comma after it.

• Rent is very expensive in Boston. For this reason, we decided to move to Ohio. 
• He threatened to commit suicide. For this reason, we kept him under surveillance. 

As a result/consequently/therefore

As a result, consequently, and therefore are more formal and more common in written language. They are normally used at the beginning of a sentence (or clause), followed by a comma.

• The flight was delayed due to the storm. As a result, many passengers complained.  
• Animals were his only true passion. Therefore/Consequently, he decided to study biology. 
• The company failed to meet the safety standards, and therefore/consequently, the factory was closed.

We can also use consequently and therefore in the mid position (before the verb, after be as the main verb, or after the first auxiliary verb).

• You have been a real asset to the company. We have therefore/consequently decided to promote you.